More simply: both sides are functions (on $\Bbb N)$ satisfying the recurrence $\rm\:f(n\!+\!1)-f(n) = (n\!+\!1)^3\:$ with initial condition $\rm\:f(0) = 0,\:$ hence they agree by the uniqueness theorem for such recurrences (which has a very simple inductive proof only a couple lines long -- try it!)
The proposed solution works somewhat similarly. If $\rm\:p(n)\:$ is a polynomial in $\rm\:n\:$ of degree $\rm\:d\:$ then one easily checks by undetermined coefficients that there exists a polynomial of degree $\rm\:d+1\:$ satisfying $\rm\:f(n+1) - f(n) = p(n),\:$ because the resulting system of equations has triangular form with nonzero diagonal entries $\rm\:a_{i,i} = i.\:$ Solving we obtain a solution $\rm\:f(n),\:$ so $\rm\:p(n) = f(n)-f(0)\:$ is a solution satisfying our initial condition $\rm\:p(0) = 0.\:$ Therefore, by the above uniqueness theorem, this polynomial function solution is unique (as a function on $\,\Bbb N).$
Thus, since we know that the solution has polynomial form, to verify that a particular polynomial is a solution, it suffices to check that it is a solution at sufficiently many points, since a polynomial over a field (or domain) of degree $\rm\:n\:$ is determined uniquely by its values at $\rm\:n+1\:$ distinct points.
Remark $\ $ Although it plays no role here, it is worth remarking that over finite rings there may be subtleties in similar problems due to the fact that there may not be a one-to-one correspondence between formal polynomials and polynomial functions, e.g. over $\rm\,\Bbb Z/p = $ integers mod $\rm p,\:$ we have $\rm\:x^p = x\:$ as functions but not as formal polynomials.