Your understanding looks basically correct to me.
As far as purpose, I've seen it used mostly to generate random variables from continuous distributions. For instance, if $X$ has a $U(0,1)$ distribution, then $F_X(x) = x$. Thus the requirement $F_X(x) = F_Y(y)$ in the probability integral transform reduces to $x = F_Y(y)$ or $y = F_Y^{-1}(x)$. Since $y$ is an observation from the probability distribution $Y$, this means that we can generate observations from the distribution $Y$ by generating $U(0,1)$ random variables (which most software programs can do easily) and applying the $F_Y^{-1}$ transformation.
For example, suppose you want to generate instances of an exponential$(\lambda)$ random variable. The cdf is $F(y) = \int_0^y \lambda e^{-\lambda t} dt = 1 - e^{-\lambda y}.$ Solving for $y$, we have $F(y) - 1 = - e^{-\lambda y} \Rightarrow -\lambda y = \ln (1- F(y)) \Rightarrow y = F^{-1}(x) = -\ln(1-x)/\lambda.$
Thus if $x$ is an observation from a $U(0,1)$ distribution, then $y = -\ln(1-x)/\lambda$ is an observation from an exponential$(\lambda)$ distribution. Moreover, $x$ having a $U(0,1)$ distribution is equivalent to $1-x$ having a $U(0,1)$ distribution, so we often express the transformation as $y = -\ln x/\lambda$.
As far as a general procedure for performing the transformation, what I've done here with the uniform and exponential distributions should give you a guide. Unfortunately, though, there aren't that many commonly-used distributions for which the cdf can be inverted analytically.