I think you will have more luck learning nontrivial facts about and examples of injective modules in (non/)commutative algebra texts rather than homological algebra texts. In homological algebra texts, injective modules (and more generally injective objects in an abelian category) play an important technical role but are not really studied for their own sake. (Several times on this site and MO I have quipped that although I know how to prove that the category of sheaves on a topological space has enough injectives, nevertheless I have never met a nontrivial injective sheaf.)
My own lecture notes / proto-text on commutative algebra has a decently substantial section -- $\S 3.6$ -- on injective modules. If you need to know a lot about injective modules you will need to look elsewhere, but it sounds like you are frustrated by the fact that you have been told almost nothing about them, and for that my notes can serve as a remedy. In particular I discuss:
1) Suppose $R$ is a domain and $M$ is an $R$-module. Then:
a) If $M$ is injective, then $M$ is divisible. In particular, $\mathbb{Z}$ is not an injective $\mathbb{Z}$-module.
b) If $M$ is divisible and torsionfree, then $M$ is injective. In particular $\mathbb{Q}$ is an injective $\mathbb{Z}$-module.
c) If $R$ is a PID then every divisible module is injective.
Note also that every PID -- in and particular $\mathbb{Z}$ -- is a hereditary ring, so this answers your second question: the submodule $\mathbb{Z}$ of $\mathbb{Q}$ is a noninjective submodule of an injective module over a hereditary ring.
2) (Injective Production Lemma) If $M$ is a flat $R$-module and $N$ is an injective $R$-module, then $\operatorname{Hom}_R(M,N)$ is injective.
This is used to prove that the category of modules over any ring has "enough injectives".